[210] The poet and official Sima Xiangru (179–117 BCE) wrote several rhapsodies, yet his largest and most influential was the "Rhapsody on the Son of Heaven on a Leisurely Hunt" (Tianzi Youlie Fu 天子遊獵賦) written in debate form. [246], During the Western Han, grave goods were usually wares and pieces of art that were used by the tomb occupant when he or she was alive. [199] Students were expected to pay tuition, thus a teacher enjoyed a significant salary. [114] Physicians who practiced medicine and studied medical classics could not only make a decent income, but were also able to gain an education and become officials. [11] Although the central government eventually stripped away the political power of the kings and appointed their administrative staffs, kings still had a right to collect a portion of the taxes in their territory as personal income and enjoyed a social status that ranked just below the emperor. [278], The Han Chinese believed that three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were inextricably linked and subject to natural cycles; if man could understand these cycles, they could understand the hidden secrets of the three realms. [139] Since carrying on the patrilineal line meant the continuation of ancestor worship, it was important to have at least one son, even if he was adopted from another family (although it was considered imperative that he share the same surname, otherwise his ancestral sacrifices could be considered null and void). Email. [298], The widespread Yellow Turban Rebellion also occurred in 184 CE, its leaders claiming that they were destined to bring about a utopian era of peace. [99] However, most slaves were tributary gifts given to the court by foreign states, families of criminals who committed treason against the state, and former private slaves who were either donated to authorities (since this would exempt the former slaveholder from labor obligations) or confiscated by the state if their master had broken a law. Ruitenbeek (2005), "Triangular hollow tomb tile with dragon design," 253–254; Beningson, (2005). [35] These men, although geographically separated and mired in local activities, started to view themselves as participants in wider national affairs of politics and scholarship. The Silk Road was established during the Han Dynasty. Ebrey (1999), 77; Kramers (1986), 752–753. [141] However, prominent kinship groups could enjoy a great deal of ad hoc influence, especially if a member served as a government official. [31], Starting in Western Han was a system of recommendation where local officials submitted proposals to the capital on which of their subordinates were worthy candidates for holding office; this created a patron-client relationship between former superiors and successful nominees to higher office. [248] However, during Eastern Han some scholar-officials began engaging in crafts originally reserved for artisans, such as mechanical engineering. "Standing man and woman," in, Bower, Virginia (2005). Nishijima (1986), 581–583; Wang (1982), 83–85. [238] Women could level charges against men in court, while it was commonly accepted in Han jurisprudence that women were capable of telling the truth in court. [47] Repulsed by what they viewed as a corrupted government, many gentrymen considered a moral, scholarly life superior to holding office, and thus rejected nominations to serve at court. [68] Sympathetic to the plight of farming peasants who had lost their land, a court edict of 94 CE stipulated that farming peasants who had been reduced to selling wares as street peddlers were not to be taxed as registered merchants, since the latter were heavily taxed by the state. [253] Human figurine sculptures found in Han tombs were placed there to perform various functions for the deceased in the afterlife, such as dancing and playing music for entertainment, as well as serving food. [265], Like their modern counterparts, the Han-era Chinese used chopsticks as eating utensils. [262] The type of game animals hunted during the Han included rabbit, sika deer, turtle dove, goose, owl, Chinese bamboo partridge, magpie, common pheasant, and cranes, while fish and turtles were taken from streams and lakes. Hinsch (2002), 25–26; de Crespigny (2007), 511; Beck (1986), 323. [159] However, to limit the power of the kings while still upholding primogeniture, an imperial edict of 127 BCE stated that kings had to divide the territories of their kingdoms between the chosen successor (i.e. [72] Singing and dancing to entertain wealthy patrons were other common professions open for women. "The Fall of Han," in, Beningson, Susan L. (2005). Wang (1982), 80–88, 100–107, 141–149, 207.. Loewe (2005), "Funerary Practice in Han Times" 102–103. [205] He also traveled extensively to interview witnesses for more recent accounts. [13] Although kings and marquesses enjoyed many privileges, the imperial court was at times aggressive towards them to check their power. [286] Yet by 26 CE (shortly after the downfall of Wang Mang) the new Eastern Han court made a retrospective argument that Han's element had always been fire. [275] However, 'tomb-quelling texts' (zhenmuwen 鎮墓文) that appeared during the 1st century CE acted as passports for the dead so that they did not disturb or bring danger to the living. [53] Wage laborers (gunong 雇農) and slaves were also employed on the estates of the wealthy, although they were not as numerous as tenants. [243], Although modern scholars know of some surviving cases where Han law dealt with commerce and domestic affairs, the spheres of trade (outside the monopolies) and the family were still largely governed by age-old social customs. [199] Although the size of the Imperial Academy was greatly expanded in Eastern Han, private schools grew in importance as the imperial government lost authority and its academy's persecution of Old Text tradition drove many to pursue Old Text studies in private institutions. [65] This is perhaps largely because scholars and officials could not survive without the farmer's product and taxes paid in grain. [233] Yet he most often dealt with cases of political rebels and regicide in regards to kings, marquesses, and high officials. [223] Zhang also penned the rhapsody "Returning to the Fields", which fused Daoist and Confucian ideals as well as laid the groundwork for later metaphysical nature poetry. [19] However, Shi Xian was expelled from office once Emperor Cheng (33–7 BCE) took the throne. This is the first recorded instance in China where a scholar-official was commissioned to write eulogies and paint portraits in conjunction, instead of relying on skilled artisans to do the painting. Hinsch (2002), 28; Ebrey (1986), 621–622; Ebrey (1974), 173–174; Ch'ü (1972), 109–111. [259] People of the Han also consumed sorghum, Job's tears, taro, mallow, mustard green, melon, bottle gourd, bamboo shoot, the roots of lotus plants, and ginger. [202] However, Sima's work is considered the first of China's Standard Histories, laid the groundwork for Chinese historiography by creating the first universal history of China. [14] In the first half of Western Han, resettlement could also be imposed on powerful and wealthy officials as well as individuals who owned property worth more than a million cash. [198], In order to secure a position as a teacher, erudite in the capital, or government official, a student could choose one of several paths to become well educated. [220] These privately published biographies focused either on gentrymen from one's locality or more well known figures who held national prominence. [229], The county magistrate and commandery administrator were the official court judges of the county and commandery, respectively. The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang (known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu), was the second imperial dynasty of China.It followed the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), which had unified the Warring States of China by conquest. [157] This excluded daughters, who married into other families and thus did not carry on the family name. [14] When the authority of the central government declined in the late Eastern Han period, many commoners living in such hamlets were forced to flee their lands and work as tenants on large estates of wealthy landowners. [256] These include miniature ceramic towers—usually watchtowers and urban residential towers—which provide historians clues about lost wooden architecture. [35] A third of the two hundred and fifty-two Eastern Han government officials who had biographies in the Book of Later Han were sons or grandsons of officials, while a fifth came from prominent provincial families or had ancestors who had served as officials. Loewe (2001), 221–230; Schaberg (2001), 249–259. [274] Besides the Queen Mother's mountain to the west, Mount Penglai in the east was another mythological location where the Han-era Chinese believed one could achieve immortality. [55] The social status of poor independent owner-cultivators was above tenants and wage laborers, yet below that of wealthy landowners. [4] An emperor could pardon anyone and grant general amnesties. [64] In contrast, a bureaucrat who appointed a merchant as an official could suffer impeachment from office, while some even avoided nominations by claiming they were merchants. [273] Spirits, or shen, were usually associated with the animalistic spirits embodying certain places, such as the Earl of the Yellow River (He Bo 河伯). The temples were built to shelter Chinese armies during the Han Dynasty wars. This included tattooing the face, cutting off the nose, castration, and amputation of one or both feet, yet by 167 BCE these were abolished in favor of lengthy floggings with the bastinado. [265] The wealthy also wore fox and badger furs, wild duck plumes, and slippers with inlaid leather or silk lining; those of more modest means could wear wool and ferret skins. [265] The Han also had tools for ironing clothes. The Ming era is known to be one of the three golden eras of China - the Han and the Tang dynasties being the other two. Though the Han Dynasty and Roman Empire existed simultaneously, they were vastly different because they were separated by thousands of miles and high mountain ranges. [28] The individual titles and functions of the Three Excellencies changed from Western to Eastern Han. [120] In addition to an increase in salary (see table to the right), newly promoted men were granted wine and ox-meat for a celebratory banquet. [94] By then, hosts began to treat retainers as their personal troops (buqu 部曲), which undercut the freedoms of mobility and independence that earlier retainers had enjoyed. During the reign, the Ming Dynasty economy achieved great improvements in agriculture, technology, trade and also manufacturing. [285] By 104 BCE, to accompany the installment of the new Taichu Calendar (太初历), the Han court aligned itself with the earth phase to legitimately supplant the Qin's element. [290] At this point, the Chinese heavily associated Buddhism with Huang-Lao Daoism. [106], The children of both government and private slaves were born slaves. [129], There were many amusements in the cities which could attract audiences rich and poor, such as trained animals performing tricks, cockfighting and caged animal fights between tigers, horse racing, puppet shows, musical performances with dancing, acrobatic feats, and juggling. [177] This school of thought was known as 'Yellow Emperor and Laozi' (Huang-Lao 黃老), which gained full acceptance at court under the patronage of Empress Dowager Dou (d. 135 BCE). [121] When a commoner was promoted in rank, he was granted a more honorable place in the seating arrangements of hamlet banquets, was given a greater portion of hunted game at the table, was punished less severely for certain crimes, and could become exempt from labor service obligations to the state. Zhao Kuangyin, later known as Emperor Taizu (r. 960–976), usurped the throne and deposed the last Zhou ruler Guo Zongxun with the support of military commanders in 960, initiating the Song dynasty. Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 176; Loewe (1994), 56–57. Hulsewé (1986), 531–532; Hucker (1975), 165. [287] Illness was thus seen as the result of violating religious rules and committing personal sins, which required confession to libationers charged with overseeing the recovery of sinners. [58] Until they reached age fifty-six, they were liable to perform one year of active service as troops sent to guard the frontiers from hostile nomads or to act as guards in the capital city. Match the achievement with the dynasty that accomplished it. [224], Zhang Heng also wrote "Lyric Poems on Four Sorrows" (四愁詩), which represent the earliest heptasyllabic shi poems in Chinese literature. The Song system of government was also advanced for its time. A storyteller, unearthed from a tomb of Songjialin. ? A new synthetic ideology of Han Confucianism was created when the scholar Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BCE) united the Confucian canon allegedly edited by Kongzi, or Confucius (551–479 BCE), with cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the Chinese five elements. [138] The four different subgroups were: (1) brother, brother's sons, and brother's grandsons; (2) father's brothers, father's brother's sons and grandsons; (3) paternal grandfather's brothers, their sons, and grandsons; and (4) paternal great-grandfather's brothers, their sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons. [288] However, a major transformation in Daoist beliefs occurred in the 2nd century CE, when large hierarchical religious societies formed and viewed Laozi as a deity and prophet who would usher in salvation for his followers. [229] Evidence for this includes archaeological finds at Qin-era Shuihudi and Han-era Zhangjiashan. Indeed, scholars today talk of a Song economic revolution. The Forbidden City. [258], The most common agricultural food staples during Han were wheat, barley, rice, foxtail millet, proso millet, and beans. [243] Further reforms exempted those aged seventy and older from harsh interrogation methods in cases other than false accusation and murder. Which statement best describes city life during the Han dynasty? [276] The court's exclusive worship of Heaven continued throughout the rest of Han. Nishijima (1986), 576–577; Ch'ü (1972), 114; see also Hucker (1975), 187. [147] The vast majority of people during Han practiced monogamy, although wealthy officials and nobles could afford to support one or many concubines in addition to their legal wife. If you are at an office or shared network, you can ask the network administrator to run a scan across the network looking for misconfigured or infected devices. The economy was quickly showing signs of capitalism and prosperity during this era as well. [287] They believed that chanting parts of the Daodejing would bring about cures for illnesses. Hulsewé (1986), 533; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 46. O A. [10] The emperor's sisters and daughters were made princesses with fiefs. [174], The historian Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE) wrote that the Legalist tradition inherited by Han from the previous Qin dynasty taught that imposing severe man-made laws which were short of kindness would produce a well-ordered society, given that human nature was innately immoral and had to be checked. Not only were there many different burial customs and views on how one journeyed through the afterlife, but even the names hun and po for spirit-soul and body-soul could be substituted with demon (gui 鬼) and spirit (shen 神). Inspired by the Ming Dynasty, which had immediately preceded it, the Qing emperors embraced a labyrinthine bureaucracy. [76] Such a fortune was one hundred times larger than the average income of a middle class landowner-cultivator and dwarfed the annual 200,000 cash-coin income of a marquess who collected taxes from a thousand households. Names taken from Hardy and Kinney (2005), 89. "The Economic and Social History of Later Han," in. [246] This is because they once had wooden or cloth arms which were attached to holes in the shoulders by pegs, as well as miniature clothes made of perishable materials such as silk. The empress was superior in status to the male relatives of her consort clan, while the mother of the emperor—the empress dowager had the authority to override his decisions and choose his successor (if one had not been appointed before his death). [280] The five phases was another important cycle where the elements of wood (mu 木), fire (huo 火), earth (tu 土), metal (jin 金), and water (shui 水) succeeded each other in rotation and each corresponded with certain traits of the three realms. The Han Dynasty And Roman Empire 1059 Words | 5 Pages. [79] Some of the most profitable commodities sold during the Han were salt and iron, since a wealthy salt or iron distributor could own properties worth as much as ten million cash. [18] After the eunuch Shi Xian (石顯) became the Prefect of the Palace Masters of Writing (中尚書), Emperor Yuan (r. 48–33 BCE) relinquished much of his authority to him, so that he was allowed to make vital policy decisions and was respected by officials. Retainers attached themselves to the estates of wealthy landowners, while medical physicians and state-employed religious occultists could make a decent living. [52] They mostly relied on poor tenant farmers (diannong 佃農) who paid rent in the form of roughly fifty percent of their produce in exchange for land, tools, draft animals, and a small house. During this period, other ideologies were banned and everyone, even children were told to learn the teachings of Confucianism. However, internal and external influences caused the collapse of the Han Dynasty in the year A.D. 221. Loewe (2005), "Funerary Practice in Han Times," 101–102. ... Technology during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) Google Classroom Facebook Twitter. [38] Even if one secured an office by these means, an official was still expected to be competent, thus a formal education became the hallmark of those aspiring to fill public office. During the Song (Sung) Dynasty (960-1276), technology was highly advanced in fields as diverse as agriculture, iron-working, and printing. [24] They could not be arrested for crimes unless permission was granted by the emperor. [200], Before the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) by Sima Qian (145–86 BCE), there existed terse chronicles of events such as the Spring and Autumn Annals and the chronicle found at Shuihudi covering events in the State of Qin and Qin dynasty from 306 to 217 BCE. [171] Other more fortunate women could become renowned medical physicians who provided services to the families of high officials and nobility. [66] The government relied on taxed grain to fund its military campaigns and stored surplus grain to mitigate widespread famine during times of poor harvest. [103] It might have been more economically feasible to maintain tenants instead of slaves, since slave masters were obligated to pay an annual poll tax of 240 coins for each slave they owned (the same rate merchants had to pay for their poll tax). [170] Some women also turned to the humble profession of sorcery for income. Ebrey (1999), 79; Loewe (1986), 201; de Crespigny (2007), 496, 592. [27] The most senior posts were the Three Excellencies—excluding the Grand Tutor, a post that was irregularly occupied. [128] Historians are still unsure as to how many government-controlled marketplaces existed in Chang'an. Neinhauser et al. [169] When a husband died, sometimes the widow became the sole supporter of her children, and thus had to make a living weaving silk cloths or making straw sandals to sell in the market. Isolationism is basically limiting the contacts with other people. [128] Both the East Market and West Market had a two-story government office with a flag and drum placed on the roof. [254] A common type of ceramic figurine found in Han tombs is a female entertainer sporting long, flowing silk sleeves that are flung about while dancing. It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor. [141] Wealthy scholars or officials often shared the same kinship group with poor commoners. They brought together the established, popular metaphysics and Buddhist doctrines.In the north of China there were quite a few reputed monks while in the south many scholar-bureaucrats were well versed in Buddhism. [207] Hardy explains that this was not unique to Sima's work, as Han scholars believed encoded secrets existed in the Spring and Autumn Annals, which was deemed "a microcosm incorporating all the essential moral and historical principles by which the world operated" and future events could be prognosticated. Although girls and women were expected by custom and Confucian tradition to behave passively towards their male relatives, mothers were given a familial status above that of their sons. Such goods were often highly decorated by skilled artisans. [12] Each king had a son designated to be heir apparent, while his other sons and brothers were given the rank of marquess and ruled over small marquessates where a portion of the taxes went to their private purse. It is not the only one of its kind. [277] One of the underlying reasons for this shift in state policy was Emperor Cheng's desire to gain Heaven's direct favor and thus become blessed with a male heir. [268] Silk clothes found in Han tombs include padded robes, double-layered robes, single-layered robes, single-layered skirts, shoes, socks, and mittens. Bower (2005), "Standing man and woman," 242–244. Wagner (2001), 15–17; Hucker (1975), 190. They often came from the middle class and had links to trade. [87] However, not all retainers shared the same status, as those showered with gifts often provided highly skilled work or greater services; retainers who were not as skilled were given lesser gifts and seated in less honorable positions when meeting the host. Hulsewé (1986), 532–535; Hucker (1975), 165. [98] State-owned slaves were sometimes prisoners of war (yet not all were made slaves). The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of Ancient China divided into the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) periods, when the capital cities were located at Chang'an and Luoyang, respectively.It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor. "The Development of the Confucian Schools," in, Liu, Cary Y. "The Concept of 'Brilliant Artifacts' in the Han Dynasty Burial Objects and Funerary Architecture: Embodying the Harmony of the Sun and the Moon," in, Loewe, Michael. [298] Although Zhang Lu surrendered to Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 CE) in 215 CE, Cao was still wary of his influence over the people, so he granted Zhang and his sons fiefs to placate them. [73], Although these laws were relaxed over time, Emperor Wu renewed the state's persecution of merchants when in 119 BCE he made it illegal for registered merchants to purchase land. 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